FOODS OF THE FIRST CENTURY - GRAINS

Loaves of Flatbread Fresh from the Oven

Hello My Friend and Welcome. 

Today we have another installment in the ongoing series, Foods of the First Century along with a couple of interesting recipes. There are a few clarifying points that need to be made before we step into our study of grains.  

CORN IN THE BIBLE

First, some translations of the Bible mention corn. Corn, or more properly, zea mays, is a new world grain and definitely not known to First Century inhabitants of the Levant. In the Middle Ages, the word corn was a catch-all word for grain. It could mean oats, rye, barley, wheat, etc. Consequently, when the Pilgrims came to the United States and encountered the crop zea mays — the Indians’ staple grain — they referred to it as corn. Which is why what Americans call corn is known everywhere else as maize. 

VARIETY NOT NECESSARY

Secondly, there isn’t nearly the variety among the grains as we found in other categories we’ve visited. This shouldn’t be surprising. Think for a moment about our present world. Though we have an unprecedented number of grains available to us, the demand for wheat products and wheat flour far and away exceeds the demand for all of the other grains combined. When it comes to grains, variety is nice, but certainly not necessary. 

THE CEREAL GRAINS

The third, and last, point is that all cereal grain crops are grasses. Other than rice, corn, and grain sorghum, their growth habits are remarkably similar. By and large, the seeds themselves resemble each other. So much so that faced with a table full of bowls of grain, labeling them correctly could be a daunting task. (Trust me on this. As a final exam in an agronomy course, we once had to identify dishes of the common cereal grains as well as another set of dishes filled with common forage grass seeds. It’s not something you want to do.)  

The very earliest grains known to archaeologists are einkorn and emmer. Einkorn was a tough grain grown in Europe since the Mesolithic era. There is evidence of einkorn farming in the Karacadag Mountains in southeast Turkey 11,000 years ago and also around Jericho about the same time. Its use decreased with the growing popularity of newer varieties of wheat and today it is grown only as a specialty crop. Einkorn gluten does not cause the allergic reactions of modern wheat gluten and is often beneficial for those suffering from celeriac disease. 

As usual, we’ll base our list upon Biblical references.

Barley Ripening in the Field

Barley (Deuteronomy 8:8; Ezekiel 4:9) Hordeum valgar, more commonly known as barley is one of the most ancient of all types of crops.  It was domesticated in Mesopotamia, from its wild relative Hordeum spontaneum. Barley flour, and therefore barley bread, was the poor man’s staple in the First Century. Recall John 6:9 “There is a boy with five small barley loaves…”  

We must also remember that all bread would, by necessity, have been made from a starter. They ate what we commonly term sourdough breads. Packaged active dry yeast was not available commercially until the 1880’s. 

Most whole barley sold today is de-hulled, that is, its indigestible outer seed coat has been removed. Many stores also carry pearled barley which is polished after the hull was removed. Its white kernels make it an attractive alternative to rice. Barley can be eaten as pilaf, or in soups and stews.

Egyptian Wall Painting of Man Drinking Beer

The Egyptians discovered that bread baked with malted (sprouted) barley remained fresh longer than the plain variety. Because the malting process converted many of the grains starches into sugars, it also was highly fermentable. A clay tablet dating to 1,800 BC known as the Hymn to Ninkasi (the Sumerian Goddess of Brewing) contains an ancient recipe for making beer. Loaves of bread made of malted barley flour were twice-baked then crumbled into a mixture of malted barley and water, and left to ferment. Sweet syrup was added to the final mash. Ancient beers contained no hops; the brewers added sycamores instead. Recall from our post on fruits and nuts that this would reference sycamore figs, which probably supplied the sweetness mentioned above.  

With no disrespect intended, have you ever imagined Jesus and his disciples gathering for a glass of beer after a hard day’s work? Records indicate that they most likely did.

A Field of Flax in Bloom

Flax (Exodus 9:31) There are five references to flax in the Bible, but only one of these refers to the crop itself. The others are indirect references to linen. The flax plant is, of course, a dual crop. Its seeds are edible and the stems were beaten to free the fibers that were woven into linen. Linen was a premium fabric in the First Century. 

Flaxseeds can be added to breads, muffins and cookies for their nutritional value. The following recipe for flaxseed crackers fit the needs of the Early Christians. They were quick, easy and tasty…plus they don’t even require a lot of modern equipment; they could be dried in the sun.

Easy-to-Make Flaxseed Crackers

Ingredients: 1 cup flax seeds, 1 cup water, 1/8 cup soy sauce, 1/4 teaspoon garlic powder, 1/4 teaspoon curry powder, salt and pepper to taste. 

Process: Place the flax seeds and water in a medium bowl and mix. Let sit for 1-1/2 hours. The mixture will thicken. Preheat your oven to 300 degrees F. Line a rimmed baking sheet with parchment. Mix in the soy sauce, garlic and curry powders, and salt, pepper. Pour mixture onto baking sheet, spread into a large rectangle about 1/8-inch thick. Bake for 40 minutes, then check for firmness. If it's firm, flip and continue baking for another 40 minutes or so. If not, keep baking a little longer. You'll want 'em crispy versus chewy for taste.  Cool and cut or break your large cracker into bite-sized squares. [You can also make them in a dehydrator…use a tray designed for fruit leather.] 

Millet (Ezekiel 4:9) Birdseed is the first thing most people think of when millet is mentioned, and rightly so. Millet is the primary food of most caged birds. However, millet is particularly suited to semi-arid conditions and it is grown and eaten by a substantial part of the population in Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. Millet flour is used to make flatbreads, muffins and cookies. Whole millet can be cooked into porridge and eaten for breakfast, or made into pilaf with herbs and vegetables. The people of Senegal make a stew of cooked millet, chickpeas, cabbage, onions, garlic, root vegetables and peanut butter. (Peanuts, by the way, are known as ground nuts in Africa.)

Oats Though not specifically mentioned in the Bible, oats were domesticated in Europe about 1000 BC. They originated as weeds that grew within cultivated fields of various other crops. Even today, they can grow in ditch banks and other places there not wanted; hence the expression, “Sowing one’s wild oats." 

Oats were slow to gain popularity because they did keep as well as other cereal grains. They have a tendency to go rancid very quickly, due to the presence of natural fats and a fat dissolving enzyme present in the grain. Greeks and Romans considered oats to be nothing more than a diseased version of wheat. Oats were a lowly horse food for the Romans. They scoffed at the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe, calling them oat-eating barbarians. So we can say with certainty that people of the First Century knew and had oats. What they did with them is another story. Even today, less than 5% of the oats grown commercially are for human consumption.

Spelt Ripening in the Field

Spelt (Ezekiel 4:9) Modern wheat traces its roots to three ancient grains: einkorn, emmer, and spelt. Spelt, which has a distinctly nutty flavor, has been cultivated in the Fertile Crescent for 9,000 years. Most of the spelt produced in the United States is grown in Ohio, which devotes between 100,000 and 200,000 acres to spelt production annually. Ground spelt is primarily used in animal feeds as an alternative to oats and barley. Its nutritional value is close to that of oats. After it is hulled, Spelt can also be used as a food grain for people. It is popular in Europe, particularly in Germany. Spelt can also be used in flour and baked goods to replace soft red winter wheat. 

Wheat (Ezra 6:9; Deuteronomy 8:8)

Emmer, an original staple of farming in the Levant, has small grains and is related to modern durum wheat. Emmer was eaten by the ancient Egyptians and is still farmed there today. When wheat is mentioned, the first thing people think of is flour. Wheat flour is lighter and softer than barley flour and was used for bread by the upper classes. The Durum wheat mentioned above produces white flour known as semolina. Today, semolina is used primarily for the production of pasta.  

Wheat also yielded two of the ancient world’s fast foods: Bulghur and Freekeh.

A Dish of Tabouleh

Bulghur is wheat that has been hulled, parboiled, dried and chopped. The parboiling precooks the grain allowing it to quickly reconstitute when soaked in water. Bulghur is served warm, or unheated as a salad. The most familiar form would be Tabbouleh, which consists of reconstituted bulghur, tomatoes, cucumbers, chopped parsley, sliced green onions, chopped mint, olive oil, lemon juice, salt, allspice, cinnamon and pepper. From earlier posts we can see that only the tomatoes present a problem for the First Century cook. They had it all, except the tomatoes.

Frekeeh After Burning and Husked

Though similar, Freekeh has its own unique character. Durum wheat is harvested green while the kernels are soft and full of moisture. Then it’s allowed to dry in the sun before being placed on an open fire. The straw and chaff burn away, turning the wheat a dark golden color. The grains are then polished and cracked. Freekeh is said to have a unique smoky aroma and a nutty, toasted taste. It is used to make savory pilafs and other Middle Eastern side dishes. 

And now the second recipe— I looked for a Biblical reference to Bulghur and I believe it can be found in Samuel 17:17 in which Jesse tells David to take food to his brothers in Saul’s army. The NIV translation says, “Take this ephah of roasted grain.”The KJV says, “Take now for your brothers an ephah of this dried grain.” Then I checked the Douay Rheims, which follows the Latin Vulgate. It said, “Take for thy brethren an ephah of frumenty.”  Frumenty is a thick porridge made from Bulghur. The oldest available recipe comes from the early Middle Ages. 

Curye on Inglysch

To make frumente. Tak clene whete & braye yt wel in a morter tyl the holes gon of; sethe it til it breste in water. Nym it up & lat it cole. Tak good broth & sweet mylk of kyn or of almand & tempere it therwith. Nym yelkys of eyren rawe & saffroun & cast therto; salt it; lat it naught boyle after the eyren ben cast therinne. Messe if forth with venesoun or with fat motoun fresch. 

Hmmm. Here’s a translation along with comments. Keep in mind I haven’t read Old English since my senior year in high school English when we read Chaucer in its original form.  

A Recipe in English

To make frumenty. Take clean wheat and pound it well in a mortar until the hulls are off. Boil the hulled wheat in water until it cracks. Take it out and let it cool. [We have now made Bulgur wheat.] Combine a good broth and sweet almond milk, and bring them to a boil. Add the wheat and reduce heat. [Stirring so it doesn’t stick.] Take raw egg yolks and saffron and add them to the pot. Do not let it boil after the eggs are put in. [Remove from heat and let stand to thicken.] Serve with venison or fresh fat mutton.  

So there you have it, the grains the early Christians had available and a few ways in which they might have prepared them. The more we learn about these earlier times, the more we can appreciate the diverse cuisine they enjoyed. Once we’ve covered the basics, we can turn our concentration to the dishes they prepared. One of our resources for recipes is an ancient Roman cookbook. Stay tuned. 

On Wednesday we’ll study the phenomena of Shekers, or False Messiahs in ancient Israel. 

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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KING SOLOMON’S MINES

Hello My Friend and Welcome. 

The term King Solomon’s Mines conjures up all sorts of images. Perhaps it does for you as well. The book, yes it was a book long, long before it ever became a movie, has been memorialized in film three times.  

It’s interesting to compare the three posters. It’s amazing how positively chaste Deborah Kerr looked in the 1950 version. Very in keeping with the Victorian time period in which the novel was set. Note also that she got star billing, not Stewart Granger who played the film’s lead character. In1985 Sharon Stone received equal billing with Richard Chamberlain, but her attire had become decidedly skimpier. Then there’s the 2004, made-for-TV version in which all the focus is on Patrick Swayze. Poor Alison Doody is so well hidden that no one but her immediate family even would have even known she was in it.  

THE ORIGINAL ALLAN QUATERMAIN

Perennial favorites such as King Solomon’s Mines continue to fascinate. Not only do you have a serial character who continues for decades, but Hollywood can’t seem to get enough. The novel was written by Victorian adventure writer and fabulist Sir H. Rider Haggard. It tells the story of a search of an unexplored region of Africa by a group of adventurers led by Allan Quatermain. It is considered to have been the originator of the Lost World literary genre. 

It was published in September 1885 amid great fanfare. Billboards and posters around London announced it as The Most Amazing Book Ever Written. By the late 19th century, explorers were uncovering ancient civilizations around the world and King Solomon's Mines captured the public's imagination. It became an immediate best seller. It also became a cash cow for Haggard and his publisher. Eighteen Quatermain books were eventually published under titles such Hunter Quatermain’s Story, The Monster, The Treasure of the Lake, The Ancient Allan, and Allan and the Ice-gods. 

A WHOLE NEW GENRE OF FICTION

This new genre would eventually inspire Edgar Rice Burroughs’ The Land That Time Forgot, Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World, Rudyard Kipling's The Man Who Would Be King and HP Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness, even Michael Crichton's Congo. It also created the recurring male character who leads an exotic life, breaks all the rules, but succeeds anyway…think James Bond, Indiana Jones, etc., etc., etc. 

GOING FROM FICTION TO REALITY

Enough nostalgia; this post isn’t about old books or movie heroes, it’s about the real for sure mines of King Solomon the Wise, the man who built the First Temple in Jerusalem. For nearly 3,000 years the location of these mines, and whether they existed at all, has remained a mystery. No longer.  Researchers using carbon dating techniques at a site in Khirbat en-Nahas (Arabic for Ruins of Copper) in southern Jordan have verified that copper production took place there around the time King Solomon ruled the Israelites.

Aerial View of the Mine Site

Copper? What happened to all the gold and diamonds and ivory and other neat stuff, you ask? This is where we separate fact from fiction. Sorry to say, it was never there to begin with. Haggard also sent Quatermain to darkest Africa on his quest instead of the Middle East. He’s not the only novelist who played fast and loose with the facts, but why quibble with success? Especially success on a scale such as this. 

VALIDATING BIBLICAL HISTORY

Thomas Levy of the University of California San Diego, who led the research, said their work placed copper production at Khirbat en-Nahas in the 10th century BC in line with the biblical narrative of Solomon's rule. “…this research represents a confluence between the archaeological and scientific data and the Bible."

As you can see from the map, Solomon’s influence encompassed the entire region. Khirbat en-Nahas is an arid region south of the Dead Sea, which the Old Testament identifies as the Kingdom of Edom. As early as the 1930’s, archaeologists linked the site to the Edomite Kingdom, but their claims were dismissed in subsequent years because it was believed that the area was unsettled in Solomon’s time. “Now ... we have evidence that complex societies were indeed active in 10th and 9th centuries BC and that brings us back to the debate about the historicity of the Hebrew Bible narratives related to this period,” Levy said 

It's not every day that science and the Bible come together to tell a piece of history. Modern dating methods have determined that huge mines in Jordan are 3000 years old, supporting the idea that they were the Biblical mines of Edom ruled by King David and his son Solomon. 

USE OF CARBON DATING

The results of carbon dating on samples of charcoal used to smelt the ore were extremely consistent and leave no doubt as to the period during which the mines were active. This new evidence suggests that the site, one of the oldest, largest, and best preserved mines in the world, really is the one mentioned in the Bible.

Looking Down into the Dig

The team sampled charcoal from successive layers throughout a 20-foot-deep stack of smelting waste. The carbon at the base of the pit, the transition point between virgin earth,  is 3000 years old. This indicates that smelting activity began there around 1000 BC. This initial phase is estimated to have lasted about 50 years. After that a large building was constructed on the site and copper production continued until about 800 BC.  

PROOF POSITIVE

In what would have been the floor level of the building, archaeologists found two ancient Egyptian stone and ceramic artifacts: a scarab and an amulet. Since neither one of them is made of local materials, they are believed to have been brought in during the military campaign of the Egyptian Pharaoh Sheshonq I, known as Shishak in the Old Testament. 

They are dated around the time of the building's construction when an abrupt change in the rate of copper production occurred. This is believed to be evidence for the role Sheshonq I may have played in the disruption of the largest known copper factory in the eastern Mediterranean. The unanswered question is who actually controlled the mines…David, Solomon, or the region’s Edomite leaders. Either way, it’s a fascinating discovery. 

Next time, we’ll return to our Foods of the First Century with a post on Ancient Grains. 

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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BOADICEA’S LEGACY – THE TALE OF TWO CITIES & THE ARTHURIAN LEGEND

The Romans Set Fire to the Temple of Claudius, Killing all Inside

Hello My Friend and Welcome.  

A TALE OF TWO CITIES

Today we’re looking at two ancient cities in Roman Britannia, Camulodunum (present day Colchester) and Londinium (present day London). They shared a common fate; during Queen Boadicea’s revolt against the Romans both of them were destroyed. [If you missed the first post on Boadicea, you can find it HERE.]  

Both cities were rebuilt, of course, but the rebuilding process altered the relationship between them in interesting ways. Before we’re through we’ll also examine a possible origin for the Arthurian Legends and what some people have speculated may have given rise to them.

Cities seem to have a life of their own. They rise, fall, and sometimes rise again. And then, sometimes they don’t. We recently examined the slide of Antioch into near oblivion, a city once known as The Queen of the East, and compared it to the other two great cities of the Roman Empire: Rome and Alexandria. You can find the Antioch post HERE. 

Based on writings by Pliny the Elder, Cunobelinus (Colchester) is reputedly the oldest recorded town in Britain. Before the Roman conquest of Britain it was already a center of power for Cunobelin, king of the Celtic tribe, the Catuvellauni (5 BC - AD 40).  

IMORTALIZED BY SHAKESPEARE

Interestingly enough, Cunobelin appeared as Cymbeline in the Shakespearean play by the same name. In the play, Cymbeline, King of Britain, takes a new wife who has an arrogant son called Cloten. Cymbeline's lovely daughter Imogen is expected to marry Cloten. Instead Imogen marries the brave, but poor Posthumus Leonatus. Cymbeline is furious when he finds out about the marriage and banishes Posthumus. The couple have time to exchange love tokens and Imogen gives Posthumus a diamond ring and he gives her a bracelet. The villain of the plot is Iachimo who bets 10,000 ducats against Posthumus's diamond ring that he can seduce Imogen. 

RETURNING TO CAMULODUNUM

Cunobelinus is better known by its Celtic name, Camulodunum, meaning fortress of Camulos, the Celtic War god. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the Romans retained the name after their conquest of Britain in AD 43 and established a legionary fortress there. Later, when the Roman frontier expanded and Legio XX moved to the west, Camulodunum became the provincial capital of Roman Britannia. A large, and elaborate, Temple to the Divine Claudius was built in the city. It was there that thousands of Romans took refugee when Boadicea’s troops attacked the city. They all died when the rebels set fire to the Temple. And that is when Camulodunum’s, or Colchester’s, fate was sealed.

Remnants of the Wall the Romans Built Around Their Fortress

Boadicea’s fires had the strange effect of baking the wattle-and-daub buildings of Camulodunum into a solid mass. You might say the fire became an impromptu kiln. Because of this, the lower two feet of the Roman fortress survived and eventually became the underpinnings of the rebuilt colony. The town might have remained the financial capitol of Britain had the Romans not chosen to build their Colonia Victricensis, City of Victory, on the foundations of a fortress alongside the Colne River. The river’s marshy upper reaches made it nearly impossible for large merchant ships to reach the Roman settlers. In order to meet the demand for imported goods, shipping moved to the deeper waters of the Thames. And Londinium, which had previously been an insignificant trading center, grew to become the island’s center of commerce. 

Colchester Castle Dates to the 11th Century

ABOUT THOSE ARTHURIAN LEGENDS

Dr. John Morris (1913-1977) an English historian who specialized in the study of the institutions of the Roman Empire and the history of Roman Britain, suggested in his book The Age of Arthur that as the descendants of Romanized Britons looked back to a golden age of peace and prosperity under Rome the name Camelot of the Arthurian legends was probably a reference to Camulodunum, the city of the Iceni god Camulos and capital of Britannia in Roman times.

Boadicea Window in Colchester City Hall

 Studies say that Colchester (Camulodunum) was abandoned as a settlement after the sixth century. Sometime over the next three hundred years it underwent a revival. When and how is unclear. However, the ninth-century Historia Brittonum, mentions the town, which it calls Cair Colun, in a list of the thirty most important cities in Britain.  The tenth-century Saxons called the town Colneceastre, which eventually became Colchester.  

Two thousand years ago, Camulodunum was the center of everything and Londinium was a backwater trading outpost. The current population of Colchester is 160,000, which is dwarfed by London’s 7.6 million. How far the mighty have fallen. 

On Thursday, we’ll visit the myth and facts surrounding King Solomon's Mines. Look out Allan Quatermain, here we come!

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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ROMAN STONE SHIPS, BARGES, OBELISKS & COLUMNS

Divers Used Floatation Balloons to Raise Column Drums from the Sunken Ship

Hello My Friend and Welcome. 

Among other things, today we’re going to talk about obelisks…those stone pillars with a square base and a pointed top that the Egyptian Pharaohs loved so much. Think of the Washington Monument. In truth, the Washington Monument is not truly an obelisk, but an obelisk-shaped building. The difference being that the obelisks the Egyptians made were carved from a single piece of stone, whereas anyone who’s ever visited Washington, DC knows you can go up inside the Washington Monument.   

GREAT FEATS OF ENGINEERING AND LOGISTICS

But, we’re getting off track. This post was prompted by a story about the recovery of a 1^st Century BC Roman Stone Carrier discovered in waters off southeastern Turkey. The glorious monuments of Egypt, Greece and Rome are clearly architectural masterpieces, but they are also great feats of engineering and logistics.  

The particular ship they found was carrying a column when it sank. It cargo consisted of eight marble column drums, each about five feet across, and a capital. Stacked one atop the other, the drums would have formed a 30-foot-high Doric column.

Ruins of the Temple of Apollo...Note Column Drums

The ship foundered off Kızılburun (Crimson Cape), 40 miles from the Temple of Apollo at Claros, famous for an oracle similar to the one at Delphi. Based on detailed measurements and stylistic analysis, experts are certain the column was intended for Claros. Interestingly, the eight drums in the cargo, which weighed a total of about 50 tons, aren't enough for a single column at Claros. Those were composed of 11 or 12 drums. A ship like the one they found would have had to make 20 trips to supply enough marble for the 14 known columns at Claros. The drums were recovered using balloons to lift them from the sea floor. Marble headstones and basins were also found in the ship’s hull. They too, were probably bound for Claros.  

DWARFED BY A BARGE

But the ship found off Turkey would have been dwarfed by the barge used to transport an obelisk from Egypt to Rome around 38 AD. The huge stone-carrier Caligula had built to transport the obelisk from Alexandria to Ostia was eventually sunk. Pliny the Elder described the sinking of this massive 800 ton ship. It formed the foundation for the lighthouse at the new and larger artificial harbor, Portus Cladius. Constructed north of Ostia between 42 and 62 AD, it was designed to handle the larger cargo ships that could not dock at Ostia, Rome’s original port.

Remains of the barge, 340 feet long and 66 feet wide, were discovered during the construction of Rome's Leonardo da Vinci International Airport in Fiumicino, Italy. At one time Fiumicino was a Roman port north of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber River. 

Quarries in the Aswan region furnished the stone for most Egyptian monument, obelisks included. One source says the obelisk was quarried at Aswan during the reign of Amenemhet II in the 19^th Century BC and erected at the Temple of the Sun in Heliopolis. Others think Octavian, known to us as the Emperor Augustus in Luke’s gospel, installed the obelisk in the Julian Forum in Alexandria. The obelisk is unusual because it lacks hieroglyphics. No one can say why. Perhaps an Egyptian Pharaoh suddenly died before it was completed, or it has none because a Roman Emperor ordered its construction.  

Either way, Caligula transported it to Rome and erected it in the new Caligula Circus. He didn’t live long enough to see the projection completed.  It was completed under Nero’s Reign and called Nero’s Circus. It was the sight of Peter’s crucifixion. Later renamed the Vatican Circus, it became the site of St. Peter's Cathedral erected by Constantine the Great over the great saint’s grave.

The Obelisk at the Center of St. Peter's Square

 THE CENTER OF ST. PETER’S SQUARE

Pope Sixtus V had the obelisk moved to the center of the colonnaded square in 1586 during the construction of the new, or current, St. Peter’s Basilica. It remains there today. All of the obelisks in Rome were toppled in the Middle Ages except for this one. Innumerable Christians, including St. Peter, died in the Vatican Circus. Consequently, it was left standing as the last mute witness to the martyrdom of St. Peter.

Plans Run Amok - The Cracked Obelisk

 A SAD END TO GREAT PLANS

One final point before we leave obelisks. The photo above shows the Aswan Obelisk. This unfinished piece was carved from the rock, but never completely detached because it cracked. This is always a risk when quarrying. As layers are removed, the pressures on the freshly exposed rock change, causing different parts to expand at different rates. Sometimes the rock cracks, rendering it useless.  

On close examination, one can still see pits made by the hammer stones used to shape it. Wet sand and sandstone would eventually have been used to burnish the surface. This obelisk, if it had been successfully detached would have weighed more than a thousand tons, three to six times as much as they typically did. Perhaps that is why it cracked. What it was intended for is not known. 

Next time we’ll have our monthly contribution to the Christian Writer’s Blog Chain. The following Tuesday, we visit the real King Solomon’s Mines. 

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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ANCIENT GAMES - CALCULI

A Game of Calculi in Progress

Hello My Friend and Welcome. 

Today we extended our study of the Games People Played in the First Century with the Roman game of Five-in-a-Row, often referred to as Calculi. Just as the attack game of Latrunculi is often called Roman Chess, people sometimes refer to Calculi as Roman checkers. This is done, in part, to differentiate it from Latrunculi. Just as checkers is chess’ kinder, gentler cousin, Calculi similarly lacks the war-like strategy of Latrunculi. If you missed the previous posts in this series, you can find Latrunculi HERE, and Hounds and Jackals HERE. 

POPULARITY OF ANCIENT BOARD GAMES

In a world without iPods, Game Boys, X-Boxes, Cable TV and all of the other electronic distractions of 21^st Century life, women as well as men played board games.  

Pliny mentions Ummidia Quadratilla in his letters. The grandmother of one of his friends, she lived to be eighty and amused herself playing ludus calculorum, or games of stones. Nearly all board games of the era employed polished stones or glass discs as game pieces, so it remains unclear which of them she preferred.   

Another Roman writer, Martial, says,  “A tavern-keeper, a butcher, a bath, a barber, and a game board with stones, and a few books... warrant these to me, Rufus, and keep to yourself Nero's warm baths.” 

THE GAME KNOWN AS CALCULI

As we learned from Pliny, ludus calculorum was a catch-all term. Calculi is a term that has come to be used for specific games of stones in which the object is to arrange five of your playing pieces in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal row. This prevents the game from being confused with other games that also utilized stone game pieces such as Latrunculi, Duodecim Scripa, and Tabula, among others.

Ancient Glass Playing Piece

 The ancient Greeks also played a similar game that required players to align five gaming pieces. While Calculi can be played on the Latrunculi board of 8 x 8 squares, something larger…say 8 x 12, allows for more flexibility and strategy. Calculi also requires more playing pieces than Latrunculi. Particularly when the size of the board increases since there will be more blocked attempts.  

HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED

The rules of Calculi are rather simple.

1.     Players each have an unlimited number of playing pieces.
2.     Black usually starts the game.
3.     The first person to make a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal line of five playing pieces wins.
4.     If the board becomes filled, the game is a draw.

There is a qualifying restriction. A double open-ended row of three is illegal unless a player is forced to make the play. This refers to a row of three that simultaneously goes in two directions, forming a cross, an X or a T. Once constructed, such an alignment makes for an easy win.  

This rule leads to a strategy in which players try to combine a line of three with a line of four. Then, if the opposing player moves to block the row of four — which they must do to prevent a win  their opponent adds to the row of three, making it four. No matter which end of the row their opponent blocks, adding a piece to the opposite end now yields a win.

A standard checker board is an easy way to get a taste of Calculi. Keep in mind, additional checkers will be required, or something like pennies or poker chips can be substituted. Lacking that, the modern game of Connect Four makes an acceptable substitute. 

Next time we’ll examine the some of the largest ships of the ancient world - the Roman Stone Carriers. 

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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FOODS OF THE FIRST CENTURY: SALADS & GREENS

Hello My Friends and Welcome.

As we move forward on these posts of Foods of the First Century, we will be making a few additions and clarifications to the series. For instance, our list of spices contained all of the items readily available to the typical homemaker. Other Indian spices, especially black pepper, would also have been available. However, pepper traded at more than its weight in gold, making it beyond the reach of all but the very rich.

Proof of the vigorous spice trade that existed between India and what became the Greco-Roman world is found in Genesis 37:25, where Joseph’s brothers sell him into slavery.  “And they lifted up their eyes and looked, and behold, a company of Ishmaelites (Arabs) came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it to Egypt."

THE BERNIKE CONNECTION

Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt. The city of Bernike, which lay at the southeastern extreme of the Roman Empire, functioned as a transfer port for goods shipped through the Red Sea. Trade activity peaked in the First Century. Ships would sail between Berenike and India during the summer, when monsoon winds were strongest. From Berenike, camel caravans carried the goods 240 miles west to the Nile, where they were shipped by boat to the Mediterranean port of Alexandria. From there, they could be moved throughout the Roman world. By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships set sail for India each and every year. This maritime network continued until the fall of the Roman Empire when Rome lost its Red Sea ports.

ASPARAGUS – A MEDITERRANEAN NATIVE

Moving on to vegetables, we overlooked asparagus. A native of Mediterranean area and Asia Minor, it can be traced back as far as 200 BC. Both Julius Caesar and Augustus are known to have prized asparagus. Interestingly enough, almost 2,000 years before Clarence Birdseye introduced commercially frozen foods, the Romans ate froze asparagus.  How, you ask? Clever devils that they were, they kept it frozen in the Alps for special Feasts.

Bright Lights Swiss Chard

MOVING ON TO SALADS & GREENS

Before we get into salads, there is a misunderstanding that needs to be put to rest. Neither Julius Caesar, nor any of the other Caesars for that matter, ever dined on Caesar Salad. This famous dish was invented over a Fourth of July weekend in 1924 in Tijuana, Mexico by restaurateur Caesar Cardini.

Purslane-Cucumber Salad

DANDELION GREENS

I recall seeing women gathering dandelion greens when I was a child. Nowadays, dandelion has been replaced by endive. Ironically, many of the trendy greens being featured in cookbooks and on the Food Channel are the same ones that the ancients consumed. They’ve been overlooked to such an extent that some are now treated as ornamentals or, worse yet, weeds. Most can easily be gathered wild just as they were in the First Century.

Curly Malow Leaves

Check out some of the accompanying photos. Not only were these greens tasty and nutritious, but the color and variety provided a feast for the eye. Besides leaf lettuce, people of the First Century ate rocket, roquette, also known as arugula— watercress, mallow, sorrel and goosefoot. Goosefoot belongs to the genus Chenopodium which includes Bright Lights Swiss Chard, Tyee Spinach, and Aurora Orach, or Mountain Spinach, which has edible leaves in a rainbow of pastel colors. They also ate purslane, chicory, chervil, and beet greens.

Aurora Orach Spinach

 A FIRST CENTURY SALAD RECIPE

Here’s a salad recipe from Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome by Patrick Faas. I’ve added approximate quantities where I could.

Columella’s salad: Put savory in the mortar with mint (3 ½ oz.), rue, fresh coriander (cilantro) (1 ¾ oz), parsley (1 ¾ oz), a sliced leek or, if not available, onion, lettuce and rocket leaves, green thyme, or catmint(1 sprig). Add salted fresh cheese (7-8 oz.). This is all crushed together. Stir in a little peppered vinegar. Put on a plate and pour oil over it. (Columella, Re Rustica, XII) Columella added nuts to some of his other salads. Pine nuts might go nicely in this one.

Next time we revisit Foods of the First Century, we’ll examine Grains. On Friday, we’ll re-activate our series on Ancient Games and look at the Roman Game of Calculi.

 Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings.

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THE SAMARITAN PASSOVER

Samartin High Priest in Green

Hello My Friend and Welcome.

If you’ve been following our series of Lenten/Easter posts, you may recall the one on how the date of Easter is determined. (If you missed it, you can find it HERE.) In the post we pointed out that the Western Church adheres to the Gregorian calendar when calculating the date of Easter. In contrast, the Eastern Church uses the Julian, or Roman, calendar. Because of this difference, some years both branches of Christianity celebrate Easter on the same day and other years the dates are widely divergent.

It so happens that a similar situation exists with our Jewish brethren. This year, the Jews celebrated Passover on April 6^th, whereas the Samaritans will celebrate on May 4^th. There still exists today a small group of Samaritan Jews. These Samaritans adhere to the Torah – the first five books of the bible – but end up celebrating the Passover on a different date than the Jewish people who follow rabbinic laws. Still, one suspects the Samaritan traditions may possibly resemble the ancient traditions to a greater degree than those of the rabbinical Judaism.

Gathering the Lambs for Passover

Any reader of the Bible is surely aware of the animosity that existed between the Jews and the Samaritans in the First Century. Actually, the ill feelings between them can be traced all the way back to the lost tribes. Following Solomon's death his son, Rehoboam (Hebrew: רְחַבְעָם‎, Rehav'am, meaning “he who enlarges the people”) became  king of the United Monarchy of Israel. The ten northern tribes of Israel rebelled in 932/931 BC to form the independent Kingdom of Israel and invited Rehoboam's brother, Jeroboam (Hebrew: יָרָבְעָם‎, yarobh`am, meaning “he pleads the people's cause”) to be their king. Rehoboam retreated and resurrected his grandfather David’s Kingdom of Judah (in Latin Judaea).

Fast forward a couple of hundred years and the Assyrians invade the Northern Kingdom, carry away the people into captivity, and force them to intermingle with other peoples under their control. Hence, the famous lost tribes of Israel. To destroy any remnant and prevent the Jews from ever reclaiming the territory, the Assyrians moved other alien races into the area. [This is not unlike what the Chinese are currently doing by flooding Tibet with Han Chinese.] These new people eventually adopted the beliefs and practices of the Jews, becoming, in effect, converts to Judaism. Because of the method by which they came to the faith, the Jews refused to accept them and banned them from worshipping at the Temple in Jerusalem. The Samaritans responded by building their own Temple at Mt Gerizim.

All of this is back story to introduce the irony of today's post. Nearly two millennia after the destruction of Jerusalem and Herod's Temple it is the Samaritans, not the Jews, who still adhere to the old sacrificial laws. Some forty miles north of Jerusalem, an annual event occurs that transports the modern person thousands of years back in history. The Samaritan Passover has, for over two thousand years, been observed on Mt. Gerizim and Samaritans still continue to gather there to offer the sacrifices prescribed in the Torah (Pentateuch).

Preparing the Lambs

The Jewish people celebrate Passover each year, of course, but since the temple in Jerusalem was leveled by the Romans in A.D. 70, they have not offered the biblically mandated sacrifices. The Samaritans, by contrast, owed no allegiance to the Jerusalem Temple and held their sacrificial services on Mt. Gerizim. A reference in the New Testament makes this clear when the woman at the well asked Jesus if worship should be held on Mt. Gerizim or in Jerusalem (John 4:20). Excavations are now underway on the Samaritan temple that was constructed in the 4th century B.C. and destroyed in the 2nd century B.C. Even after their temple was destroyed, the Samaritans continued to offer sacrifices on Mt. Gerizim, and do so to this day.

People come from all over the world to witness the Samaritan Passover. If you can get beyond the crowds and the noise, you can almost imagine yourself back in Second Temple period and feel like you are actually present at the sacrifices as they once were. Come to think of it, keep the crowds and the noise and the experience would probably be closer to how it really was. 

The service begins at sunset. The Samaritan men dress in white garments, the leaders wear red hats, and the priests wear a distinctive turquoise-green garb. The Samaritans begin chanting and praying. When the signal is given, the head of each household reaches for his knife to slice the throat of his family’s lamb. As soon as the deed was done, the Samaritans begin celebrating. Recently, about thirty-five sheep were slain, about one for each larger family unit (no more than 600 Samaritans remain ). Then the sheep are skinned and put on a pole and carried over to one of the roasting pits to be cooked for most of the night.  

A sacrifice is a bloody process and the men end up with blood on their hands and all over their clothes. To the Samaritan or the ancient Israelite, the Mosaic statement, "the life is in the blood," must have left a profound impression of the cost of the sin which required such a sacrifice. Christians today in the sterile environment of the sanctuary may miss the benefit of understanding the gravity of sin that was such an integral part of the life of the Israelites.  

Drop by tomorrow for a special, money-saving announcement. On Friday, we’ll resume our series on Foods of the First Century with a look at salad greens and ancient recipe for Columella’s salad. 

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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