FOODS OF THE FIRST CENTURY - WHAT THEY DIDN'T HAVE

Sometimes You've Gotta Have a Bite of Chocolate

Hello My Friend and Welcome

For several months now we’ve looked at the various Foods of the Century…what they had and what they ate. Now we’re going to turn the tables and look at some of the foods they didn’t have.

THE BIBLE DIDN'T MEAN IT

As we’ve pointed out before, some translations of the Bible mention corn. Corn, or more properly, zea mays, is a new world grain and definitely not known to First Century inhabitants of the Levant. In the Middle Ages, the word corn was a catch-all term for grain. It could mean oats, rye, barley, wheat, etc. Consequently, when the Pilgrims came to the United States and encountered the crop zea mays — the Indians’ staple grain — they referred to it as corn. Which is why what Americans call corn is known everywhere else as maize.

ANOTHER STAPLE GRAIN MISSING

Although it has become a staple of Middle Eastern cooking, First Century residents also did not have rice. Its cultivation methods did not suit the semi-arid regions of the Levant. Rice is a native lowland crop of the Far East where it has traditionally been grown in flooded plains called paddies so its roots could make use of the nutrient content from the water. Paddy rice farmers usually plant the seeds first in small seedbeds and later transfer the plants into the flooded fields. 

Now let’s participate in some internet telepathy. First we’ll give you a phrase, and then we’ll tell you the first thing that popped into your mind.

Okay, here we go. The phrase is Italian Restaurant. 

The first thing that came to mind was pasta with a tomato- based red sauce. Perhaps it was spaghetti with marinara and freshly grated Parmesan, or maybe a steaming pan of lasagna. Neither of them? Well, how about farfelle, fettuccine, linguine, macaroni, manicotti, mostacolli, penne rigate, pierogi, ravioli,rigatoni…risotto? I’d be willing to bet dollars to donuts that 99 out of a hundred people equate Italian cooking with tomato sauce and pasta.  

NEW WORLD VEGETABLES

The thing that makes this so interesting is that First Century Romans, the precursors of today’s Italians, had neither tomatoes nor noodles. They had all the ingredients for the noodles, but the technology never appeared until Marco Polo’s fabled trip to the Orient. And the tomatoes didn’t arrive until the Age of Exploration carried seafaring adventurers to the New World where, in addition to looting gold, silver and precious gems, they discovered such New World vegetables as squash in its myriad forms, potatoes, tomatoes, corn, and peanuts.  

A STEAMING CUP OF TEA

Early Christians also didn’t have tea to drink, if by tea you mean the dried leaves of the tea bush.      Legend says that one summer day Shen Nung, an early Chinese emperor, was visiting a distant province and ordered his servants to boil some water. Dried leaves from a nearby bush fell into the pot, turning the liquid brown. Intrigued, Shen Hung drank some and found it very refreshing. Tea drinking was restricted to the Orient until the 16^th Century when missionaries encountered it when they journeyed to the Far East.  

What people in the time of Christ did have is what we call herbal tea today. If you check the ingredients on several packages of Celestial Seasonings herbal teas, you’ll find that they often utilize dried berries and fruit, aromatic leaves and various herbs and spices. All of which the First Century dweller had at their disposal and undoubtedly partook of.  

One of the beverages I mention in my Seeds of Christianity Series is apple peel tea, made by steeping dried apple peels in hot water. In the interest of research I saved the peels the last time we canned apple sauce and dried them in our food dehydrator. I crushed the brittle peels, added them to boiling water, then strained and sweetened the resulting pink decoction. I found that it lacked pizzazz. However, the addition of some crushed cinnamon bark, dried berries and a pinch of allspice might perk it up quite a bit. 

THEY WERE NOT CHOCOHOLICS

Now we come to the saddest, most heart-wrenching part of this post — the final two food items that the earliest Christians were forced to do without. I do not exaggerate when I say that more than a few people have sworn to me that they could NOT live without these two items. Perhaps those first Christians were a lot tougher than we give them credit for. The poor souls had no coffee and (shudder) no chocolate. They were aptly named. Anyone who can function without their morning cup of coffee surely must be a saint. 

When my children were young and, as all children are prone to do, moaned about how deprived they were, I consoled them by telling them that the all ancient rulers and kings of this world never lived as good as they did. If the lack of coffee and chocolate doesn’t prove my case, nothing ever will. 

Until next time, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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FOODS of the FIRST CENTURY - SWEETS & SWEETNERS

Making Vermont Maple Syrup with the Traditional Evaporator

Hello My friend and Welcome.

In our continuing study of Foods of the First Century we turn to an interesting aspect of the Early Christians diet: Sweets. In the sugar saturated society that we live in it’s hard to imagine a world without Twinkies, Soda Pop, Candy, Sugar-Coated Cereals…the list goes on and on. Sweets of one kind or another seem to be everywhere.  A quick check of the ingredient lists on some of the items in our cupboard demonstrates how ubiquitous sugar, in its many permutations, has become.

 

A BUILT-IN SWEET TOOTH

Like it or not, we humans seem to come with a built-in sweet tooth. And we currently quench it with mountains of refined sugar, and millions of gallons of high fructose corn syrup. But what about our Christian cousins of the First Century? They somehow survived without a convenience store on every corner. How did they do it?
 

We know a couple of things about sugars. First, they seem to be somewhat addictive; the more you get the more you want. And secondly, a high intake of sugars in the diet tends to dull the taste buds. An apple or a pear can never match the intense sweetness of a bowlful of sugar-coated crunchy-munchies. So, while making do with less sugar than modern man, perhaps our ancestors were able to enjoy the natural sweetness of fruits and berries far more than we do today.

 

LIVING IN SUGARLESS WORLD

Still, there’s that sweet-tooth thing that makes us all crave sweetness. Rest easy, perhaps life was a little sweeter than we imagine. First, and foremost, they had honey. Evidence of large apiaries producing tons of honey annually have been found in the Holy Land. You can read our post on that HERE. People of that era also produced a number of syrups, molasses-type products, which they incorporated into their cooking in many ways.
 

How effective could fruit syrups be, you ask? The next time you’re in the grocery store stop by the bakery department and check the ingredients on one of their “Sugar-Free” pies. What you will find is that these pies, instead of being sweetened with refined sugar made from sugar cane or sugar beets (sucrose), are sweetened with fruit sugar (fructose).

 

THINK MAPLE SYRUP

Most people have at least a peripheral understanding of the process for making maple syrup. Sap from a sugar maple tree is collected in early spring and transported to the sugaring house. There it is filtered and poured into a shallow evaporator with dividers that allow the operator to move the syrup from one section to the next as it slowly thickens. What comes in on one end as raw sap with barely any detectable sweetness emerges on the opposite end as that golden brown ambrosia we all know and love.
 

In reality, the sugar content of any semi-sweet juice can be increased by boiling to liquid to syrup. The following is a list of the most common syrups produced in the First Century. These syrups, or molasses, are still widely used in the Middle East.

Carob Pods - Green and Mature

CAROB MOLASSES

We mentioned Carob in our post on vegetables and made passing reference to the pods being used as a sweetener. Today, we’ll examine that in greater detail. The syrup is produced by shelling the beans and finely chopping the empty pods into water. This mixture is then cooked to extract the sugars from the pods, It is strained and reduced into a thick syrup, or carob molasses as it is called. Carob molasses is 100% carob extract with a rich aroma, flavor and color. It has a high natural sugar content, and can be used alone as syrup, or as sweetener, colorant, and flavoring agent in ice-cream toppings, cakes, cookies, and sweetmeats.

In Lebanon, the site of the ancient kingdom of Phoenicia, carob molasses is traditionally used as an alternative to sugar. Mixed and served with tahina, or sesame paste, it is eaten as a dessert called dibs bi tahina. Carob molasses is also said to be delicious on pancakes.

Interestingly, carob seeds have a history of their own. The carob seed looks very much like a large watermelon seed. There are about eight seeds to a pod. The gum they contain was used by the Egyptians for binding their mummies. The Italians use the seed to make rosary beads and in Israel they have an annual Carob Festival.

Because carob seeds are very uniform in weight, they were used as a measure for gold and gems. This carob weight has come down through the centuries as the familiar caret weight. One half of a carob seed equals one gram, or five carets.

Bowl of Date Syprup in the Making

DATE SYRUP

The juice of most fruits is obtained by pressing. Dates are different because their soluble solids are too concentrated to be pressed out. A minor exception to this rule is the incidental by-product when bagged dates are heaped on top of each other in a humid warehouse. Over a period of time small amounts of syrup will ooze out due to the force of the downward pressure. Clearly this is no way to produce usable syrup.

 To make date syrup at home, buy the softest dates you can find. Chop or crush them and put them in a narrow pan. Cover with water and bring to a boil. Let it boil for 5 minutes, then put it on the lowest heat and simmer for 30-60 minutes. Very soft dates do not require as much cooking. Remove from heat and let cool. Once the mixture is cool, put it into a blender and run on liquefy. If small pieces remain, pour the syrup through a sieve to remove them. The resulting dark syrup can be used as a replacement for maple syrup or honey when cooking and can also substitute for sugar when baking cookies.

FIG SYRUP

This syrup is made by scoring dried figs, placing them in large pots of water and letting them reconstitute for 12 hours. When the figs have softened, they are boiled and the juice produced is strained off. This juice is then boiled down to thick syrup. Fig syrup is used in cakes, fritters and many desserts. It also replaces maple syrup over French toast, waffles and pancakes.

GRAPE SYRUP

Also known as debash, it is mentioned several times in my Seeds of Christianity™ Series of books. In Greek it is πετιμέζι, pronounced peh-tee-MEH-zee. Grape syrup is naturally sweet and eaten with yogurt, over ice cream, in tea, on pancakes, in baking. In mountainous regions, it is also used to make an impromptu snow cone by pouring it over fresh snow. A teaspoonful will work wonders for sore throats due to colds.

The syrup is made by crushing the grapes and adding a small amount of wood ash to the must, as crushed grapes, juice and skins are called. The mixture is boiled in small batches and then strained. The resulting thickened juice is boiled and reduced to a thick reddish syrup. 

 There is apparently no end to the uses for these ancient syrups and sweeteners. One firm markets product to add to your bath water. It contains syrups from wild figs and grapes along with emollient oils and is said to freshen and soften the skin. We have no information regarding the use of such a product by the Early Christians, however, it seems unlikely to say the least.

POMEGRANATE SYRUP

All of the modern recipes for pomegranate syrup shorten the process by combining the juice with refined sugar in a ratio of 1 part sugar to 4 parts juice before it is reduced. True, pomegranates do have a tart, tangy taste and may require some sweetening, but clearly this is not the way it was done 2,000 years ago. They would have prepared the syrup by first boiling down the pomegranate juice and then sweetened it as needed by adding small amounts of honey.

 

Unlike the other syrups and molasses we’ve been looking at, pomegranate syrup wasn’t used as a topping or sweetener. Instead, it served as a marinade that was brushed onto various meats before grilling. It is still used that way today.

Until next time, Shalom Aleichem!

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FOODS OF THE FIRST CENTURY — FISH & FOWL

Hello My Friend and Welcome.

Today we present another installment in our continuing series Foods of the First Century. If you’re new to Sowing the Seeds and would like to start at the beginning, or if you’ve missed one along the way, you can access the entire series by clicking on Foods of the First Century under the Archives by Topic header in the lower part of the left sidebar.

KASHRUT OR KOSHER

Some clarifying notes are required before we begin our study of fish and fowl. Kashrut is the body of Jewish law dealing with what foods can and cannot be eaten and how those foods must be prepared. Kashrut comes from the Hebrew root Kaf-Shin-Reish, meaning fit, proper or correct. It is the same root as the more commonly used word kosher, which describes food that meets these standards. The word kosher can also be used, and often is, to describe ritual objects that are made in accordance with Jewish law and thus fit for ritual use.

The short answer to why Jews observe these laws is, because the Torah (The Law) says so. The Torah does not specify any reason for these laws, and for a Torah observant Jew, there is no need for any other reason. In his book To Be a Jew, Rabbi Hayim Halevy Donin suggests that the dietary laws are designed as a call to holiness. The ability to distinguish between right and wrong, good and evil, pure and defiled, the sacred and the profane, is very important in Judaism. The clean and unclean designations of Pharisaic Judaism, which prevailed at the time of Christ, were derived by attempting to codify these distinctions to the Nth degree.

As always, we’ll rely upon Biblical references to set us on our way. 

FISH

An important food source in ancient times and modern, fish are mentioned 37 times in the Old Testament (8 times in the Torah, 1 Kings, 2 Chronicles,  Nehemiah, Job, Psalms, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, Jonah, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah) and 36 times in the New Testament…all but one being in the Gospels.

There were severe kosher restrictions relating to the consumption of seafood. Both Lev. 11:9 and Deut. 14:9 say, “Of the things that are in the waters, you may eat anything that has fins and scales…” Thus, shellfish such as lobsters, oysters, shrimp, clams and crabs were all forbidden. The Jew’s gentile neighbors, of course, regularly consumed shellfish.

Fish of all varieties are permitted under Jewish law provided they have detachable scales. Some of the fish not considered kosher are: Angler See, Basa, Beluga (Sturgeon), Billfishes including Marlins and Swordfish, Blowfish, Catfish, Eels, Freshwater Cod, Lumpfish, Sharks, Rays and their relatives.

Fish Plate with Center Sauce Dish

AVAILABILITY OF FISH

The variety and availability of fish was primarily determined by geographic region. Judea, being on the Mediterranean Sea, enjoyed a wide variety of salt water fish. Fish were also plentiful in the region of Galilee because of Lake Genneserat…aka the Sea of Galilee or the Sea of Tiberias. The primary catch in the Sea of Galilee was the small bass we now know as Tilapia. Fresh fish were less plentiful in the eastern regions since their only source would have been small ponds, lakes, or the Jordan River.

FISH FARMING

Fish farming is not a modern innovation. Both the Romans and the Jews operated fish farms. A particularly large group of fish ponds were constructed at Herod’s capitol, Caesarea. If not eaten fresh, the fish would have been split, cleaned, salted, and dried in the sun, or smoked, to preserve them for later use. Dried fish was a routine trade item throughout the Roman Empire. Galilean fishermen such as Simon Peter and his brother, Andrew, and their partners the Zebedees (James, John and their father) sold their catch all across the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire.

Tradition tells us that, in addition to a sales outlet in Capernaum, the Zebedee family also had a second market in Jerusalem. In the Passion narratives, recall that John was known to the gatekeeper at the High Priest’s house whereas Peter was not and had to rely on John to get him in. With reference to the Biblical story commonly called The Loaves and Fishes, the little boy with the two fish and seven barley loaves obviously had dried fillets, most probably Tilapia. 

GARUM…THE POPULAR FISH SAUCE

Another staple of that era was Garum, or Liquamen, a salty, pungent fish sauce used both as a condiment and an ingredient in many recipes. Should you get a hankerin’ for some authentic Garum, here’s an ancient recipe from Gargilius Martialis’ cookbook, De medicina et de virtute herbarum: 

“Use fatty fish, for example, sardines, and a well-sealed container with a 26-35 quart capacity. Add dried, aromatic herbs possessing a strong flavor, such as dill, coriander, fennel, celery, mint, oregano, and others, making a layer on the bottom of the container; then put down a layer of fish (if small, leave them whole, if large, use pieces). Over this, add a layer of salt two fingers high. Repeat these layers until the container is filled. Let it rest for seven days in the sun. Then mix the sauce daily for 20 days. After that, it becomes a liquid.”  

Doesn’t that sound just yummy? If you’d rather not make your Garum by the gallon, here’s a modern alternative: Cook a quart of grape juice, reducing it to one-tenth its original volume. Dilute two tablespoons of anchovy paste in the concentrated juice and mix in a pinch of oregano. Be sure to let me know how it turns out.

A Grouse

FOWL

Partridge (1 Samuel 26:20; Jeremiah 17:11)

Pigeon (Genesis 15:9; Leviticus 12:8)

Quail (Psalm 105:40)

Dove (Leviticus 12:8)

A Quail in Israel

There are several interesting things to be gleaned from the above list. First, chicken is not mentioned. Chicken was known and available in the First Century, but generally reserved for the upper classes.  

Secondly, all of those birds listed were available wild. This isn’t to imply that everyone trapped their own birds, but I’m confident many in the rural areas did. We know from archaeological studies that aviculture was widespread and well developed in the ancient world. (See our earlier post Aviculture in Ancient Israel.) Interestingly enough, all of the birds in the list are still raised commercially.

A Sand Partridge - Native to Israel

KOSHER RESTRICTIONS ON FOWL

The Torah also designates a number of birds as forbidden…all birds of prey or scavengers. Eggs from these non-kosher sources were forbidden as well. The Biblical list omits several groups of birds that comprised part of the First Century diet. For instance, waterfowl such as ducks and geese are not mentioned, but frequently appear in the writings of Roman historians. Grouse, or ptarmigan, are also overlooked, but were surely eaten. 

So there we have it, the Fish and Fowl of the Roman world available to the earliest Christians. Two weeks from now, on May 21st , we’ll examine Meats and Milk. Meanwhile, this coming Wednesday we’ll look at Roman Merchant Ships. 

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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FOODS OF THE FIRST CENTURY - GRAINS

Loaves of Flatbread Fresh from the Oven

Hello My Friend and Welcome. 

Today we have another installment in the ongoing series, Foods of the First Century along with a couple of interesting recipes. There are a few clarifying points that need to be made before we step into our study of grains.  

CORN IN THE BIBLE

First, some translations of the Bible mention corn. Corn, or more properly, zea mays, is a new world grain and definitely not known to First Century inhabitants of the Levant. In the Middle Ages, the word corn was a catch-all word for grain. It could mean oats, rye, barley, wheat, etc. Consequently, when the Pilgrims came to the United States and encountered the crop zea mays — the Indians’ staple grain — they referred to it as corn. Which is why what Americans call corn is known everywhere else as maize. 

VARIETY NOT NECESSARY

Secondly, there isn’t nearly the variety among the grains as we found in other categories we’ve visited. This shouldn’t be surprising. Think for a moment about our present world. Though we have an unprecedented number of grains available to us, the demand for wheat products and wheat flour far and away exceeds the demand for all of the other grains combined. When it comes to grains, variety is nice, but certainly not necessary. 

THE CEREAL GRAINS

The third, and last, point is that all cereal grain crops are grasses. Other than rice, corn, and grain sorghum, their growth habits are remarkably similar. By and large, the seeds themselves resemble each other. So much so that faced with a table full of bowls of grain, labeling them correctly could be a daunting task. (Trust me on this. As a final exam in an agronomy course, we once had to identify dishes of the common cereal grains as well as another set of dishes filled with common forage grass seeds. It’s not something you want to do.)  

The very earliest grains known to archaeologists are einkorn and emmer. Einkorn was a tough grain grown in Europe since the Mesolithic era. There is evidence of einkorn farming in the Karacadag Mountains in southeast Turkey 11,000 years ago and also around Jericho about the same time. Its use decreased with the growing popularity of newer varieties of wheat and today it is grown only as a specialty crop. Einkorn gluten does not cause the allergic reactions of modern wheat gluten and is often beneficial for those suffering from celeriac disease. 

As usual, we’ll base our list upon Biblical references.

Barley Ripening in the Field

Barley (Deuteronomy 8:8; Ezekiel 4:9) Hordeum valgar, more commonly known as barley is one of the most ancient of all types of crops.  It was domesticated in Mesopotamia, from its wild relative Hordeum spontaneum. Barley flour, and therefore barley bread, was the poor man’s staple in the First Century. Recall John 6:9 “There is a boy with five small barley loaves…”  

We must also remember that all bread would, by necessity, have been made from a starter. They ate what we commonly term sourdough breads. Packaged active dry yeast was not available commercially until the 1880’s. 

Most whole barley sold today is de-hulled, that is, its indigestible outer seed coat has been removed. Many stores also carry pearled barley which is polished after the hull was removed. Its white kernels make it an attractive alternative to rice. Barley can be eaten as pilaf, or in soups and stews.

Egyptian Wall Painting of Man Drinking Beer

The Egyptians discovered that bread baked with malted (sprouted) barley remained fresh longer than the plain variety. Because the malting process converted many of the grains starches into sugars, it also was highly fermentable. A clay tablet dating to 1,800 BC known as the Hymn to Ninkasi (the Sumerian Goddess of Brewing) contains an ancient recipe for making beer. Loaves of bread made of malted barley flour were twice-baked then crumbled into a mixture of malted barley and water, and left to ferment. Sweet syrup was added to the final mash. Ancient beers contained no hops; the brewers added sycamores instead. Recall from our post on fruits and nuts that this would reference sycamore figs, which probably supplied the sweetness mentioned above.  

With no disrespect intended, have you ever imagined Jesus and his disciples gathering for a glass of beer after a hard day’s work? Records indicate that they most likely did.

A Field of Flax in Bloom

Flax (Exodus 9:31) There are five references to flax in the Bible, but only one of these refers to the crop itself. The others are indirect references to linen. The flax plant is, of course, a dual crop. Its seeds are edible and the stems were beaten to free the fibers that were woven into linen. Linen was a premium fabric in the First Century. 

Flaxseeds can be added to breads, muffins and cookies for their nutritional value. The following recipe for flaxseed crackers fit the needs of the Early Christians. They were quick, easy and tasty…plus they don’t even require a lot of modern equipment; they could be dried in the sun.

Easy-to-Make Flaxseed Crackers

Ingredients: 1 cup flax seeds, 1 cup water, 1/8 cup soy sauce, 1/4 teaspoon garlic powder, 1/4 teaspoon curry powder, salt and pepper to taste. 

Process: Place the flax seeds and water in a medium bowl and mix. Let sit for 1-1/2 hours. The mixture will thicken. Preheat your oven to 300 degrees F. Line a rimmed baking sheet with parchment. Mix in the soy sauce, garlic and curry powders, and salt, pepper. Pour mixture onto baking sheet, spread into a large rectangle about 1/8-inch thick. Bake for 40 minutes, then check for firmness. If it's firm, flip and continue baking for another 40 minutes or so. If not, keep baking a little longer. You'll want 'em crispy versus chewy for taste.  Cool and cut or break your large cracker into bite-sized squares. [You can also make them in a dehydrator…use a tray designed for fruit leather.] 

Millet (Ezekiel 4:9) Birdseed is the first thing most people think of when millet is mentioned, and rightly so. Millet is the primary food of most caged birds. However, millet is particularly suited to semi-arid conditions and it is grown and eaten by a substantial part of the population in Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. Millet flour is used to make flatbreads, muffins and cookies. Whole millet can be cooked into porridge and eaten for breakfast, or made into pilaf with herbs and vegetables. The people of Senegal make a stew of cooked millet, chickpeas, cabbage, onions, garlic, root vegetables and peanut butter. (Peanuts, by the way, are known as ground nuts in Africa.)

Oats Though not specifically mentioned in the Bible, oats were domesticated in Europe about 1000 BC. They originated as weeds that grew within cultivated fields of various other crops. Even today, they can grow in ditch banks and other places there not wanted; hence the expression, “Sowing one’s wild oats." 

Oats were slow to gain popularity because they did keep as well as other cereal grains. They have a tendency to go rancid very quickly, due to the presence of natural fats and a fat dissolving enzyme present in the grain. Greeks and Romans considered oats to be nothing more than a diseased version of wheat. Oats were a lowly horse food for the Romans. They scoffed at the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe, calling them oat-eating barbarians. So we can say with certainty that people of the First Century knew and had oats. What they did with them is another story. Even today, less than 5% of the oats grown commercially are for human consumption.

Spelt Ripening in the Field

Spelt (Ezekiel 4:9) Modern wheat traces its roots to three ancient grains: einkorn, emmer, and spelt. Spelt, which has a distinctly nutty flavor, has been cultivated in the Fertile Crescent for 9,000 years. Most of the spelt produced in the United States is grown in Ohio, which devotes between 100,000 and 200,000 acres to spelt production annually. Ground spelt is primarily used in animal feeds as an alternative to oats and barley. Its nutritional value is close to that of oats. After it is hulled, Spelt can also be used as a food grain for people. It is popular in Europe, particularly in Germany. Spelt can also be used in flour and baked goods to replace soft red winter wheat. 

Wheat (Ezra 6:9; Deuteronomy 8:8)

Emmer, an original staple of farming in the Levant, has small grains and is related to modern durum wheat. Emmer was eaten by the ancient Egyptians and is still farmed there today. When wheat is mentioned, the first thing people think of is flour. Wheat flour is lighter and softer than barley flour and was used for bread by the upper classes. The Durum wheat mentioned above produces white flour known as semolina. Today, semolina is used primarily for the production of pasta.  

Wheat also yielded two of the ancient world’s fast foods: Bulghur and Freekeh.

A Dish of Tabouleh

Bulghur is wheat that has been hulled, parboiled, dried and chopped. The parboiling precooks the grain allowing it to quickly reconstitute when soaked in water. Bulghur is served warm, or unheated as a salad. The most familiar form would be Tabbouleh, which consists of reconstituted bulghur, tomatoes, cucumbers, chopped parsley, sliced green onions, chopped mint, olive oil, lemon juice, salt, allspice, cinnamon and pepper. From earlier posts we can see that only the tomatoes present a problem for the First Century cook. They had it all, except the tomatoes.

Frekeeh After Burning and Husked

Though similar, Freekeh has its own unique character. Durum wheat is harvested green while the kernels are soft and full of moisture. Then it’s allowed to dry in the sun before being placed on an open fire. The straw and chaff burn away, turning the wheat a dark golden color. The grains are then polished and cracked. Freekeh is said to have a unique smoky aroma and a nutty, toasted taste. It is used to make savory pilafs and other Middle Eastern side dishes. 

And now the second recipe— I looked for a Biblical reference to Bulghur and I believe it can be found in Samuel 17:17 in which Jesse tells David to take food to his brothers in Saul’s army. The NIV translation says, “Take this ephah of roasted grain.”The KJV says, “Take now for your brothers an ephah of this dried grain.” Then I checked the Douay Rheims, which follows the Latin Vulgate. It said, “Take for thy brethren an ephah of frumenty.”  Frumenty is a thick porridge made from Bulghur. The oldest available recipe comes from the early Middle Ages. 

Curye on Inglysch

To make frumente. Tak clene whete & braye yt wel in a morter tyl the holes gon of; sethe it til it breste in water. Nym it up & lat it cole. Tak good broth & sweet mylk of kyn or of almand & tempere it therwith. Nym yelkys of eyren rawe & saffroun & cast therto; salt it; lat it naught boyle after the eyren ben cast therinne. Messe if forth with venesoun or with fat motoun fresch. 

Hmmm. Here’s a translation along with comments. Keep in mind I haven’t read Old English since my senior year in high school English when we read Chaucer in its original form.  

A Recipe in English

To make frumenty. Take clean wheat and pound it well in a mortar until the hulls are off. Boil the hulled wheat in water until it cracks. Take it out and let it cool. [We have now made Bulgur wheat.] Combine a good broth and sweet almond milk, and bring them to a boil. Add the wheat and reduce heat. [Stirring so it doesn’t stick.] Take raw egg yolks and saffron and add them to the pot. Do not let it boil after the eggs are put in. [Remove from heat and let stand to thicken.] Serve with venison or fresh fat mutton.  

So there you have it, the grains the early Christians had available and a few ways in which they might have prepared them. The more we learn about these earlier times, the more we can appreciate the diverse cuisine they enjoyed. Once we’ve covered the basics, we can turn our concentration to the dishes they prepared. One of our resources for recipes is an ancient Roman cookbook. Stay tuned. 

On Wednesday we’ll study the phenomena of Shekers, or False Messiahs in ancient Israel. 

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings. 

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FOODS OF THE FIRST CENTURY: SALADS & GREENS

Hello My Friends and Welcome.

As we move forward on these posts of Foods of the First Century, we will be making a few additions and clarifications to the series. For instance, our list of spices contained all of the items readily available to the typical homemaker. Other Indian spices, especially black pepper, would also have been available. However, pepper traded at more than its weight in gold, making it beyond the reach of all but the very rich.

Proof of the vigorous spice trade that existed between India and what became the Greco-Roman world is found in Genesis 37:25, where Joseph’s brothers sell him into slavery.  “And they lifted up their eyes and looked, and behold, a company of Ishmaelites (Arabs) came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it to Egypt."

THE BERNIKE CONNECTION

Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt. The city of Bernike, which lay at the southeastern extreme of the Roman Empire, functioned as a transfer port for goods shipped through the Red Sea. Trade activity peaked in the First Century. Ships would sail between Berenike and India during the summer, when monsoon winds were strongest. From Berenike, camel caravans carried the goods 240 miles west to the Nile, where they were shipped by boat to the Mediterranean port of Alexandria. From there, they could be moved throughout the Roman world. By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships set sail for India each and every year. This maritime network continued until the fall of the Roman Empire when Rome lost its Red Sea ports.

ASPARAGUS – A MEDITERRANEAN NATIVE

Moving on to vegetables, we overlooked asparagus. A native of Mediterranean area and Asia Minor, it can be traced back as far as 200 BC. Both Julius Caesar and Augustus are known to have prized asparagus. Interestingly enough, almost 2,000 years before Clarence Birdseye introduced commercially frozen foods, the Romans ate froze asparagus.  How, you ask? Clever devils that they were, they kept it frozen in the Alps for special Feasts.

Bright Lights Swiss Chard

MOVING ON TO SALADS & GREENS

Before we get into salads, there is a misunderstanding that needs to be put to rest. Neither Julius Caesar, nor any of the other Caesars for that matter, ever dined on Caesar Salad. This famous dish was invented over a Fourth of July weekend in 1924 in Tijuana, Mexico by restaurateur Caesar Cardini.

Purslane-Cucumber Salad

DANDELION GREENS

I recall seeing women gathering dandelion greens when I was a child. Nowadays, dandelion has been replaced by endive. Ironically, many of the trendy greens being featured in cookbooks and on the Food Channel are the same ones that the ancients consumed. They’ve been overlooked to such an extent that some are now treated as ornamentals or, worse yet, weeds. Most can easily be gathered wild just as they were in the First Century.

Curly Malow Leaves

Check out some of the accompanying photos. Not only were these greens tasty and nutritious, but the color and variety provided a feast for the eye. Besides leaf lettuce, people of the First Century ate rocket, roquette, also known as arugula— watercress, mallow, sorrel and goosefoot. Goosefoot belongs to the genus Chenopodium which includes Bright Lights Swiss Chard, Tyee Spinach, and Aurora Orach, or Mountain Spinach, which has edible leaves in a rainbow of pastel colors. They also ate purslane, chicory, chervil, and beet greens.

Aurora Orach Spinach

 A FIRST CENTURY SALAD RECIPE

Here’s a salad recipe from Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome by Patrick Faas. I’ve added approximate quantities where I could.

Columella’s salad: Put savory in the mortar with mint (3 ½ oz.), rue, fresh coriander (cilantro) (1 ¾ oz), parsley (1 ¾ oz), a sliced leek or, if not available, onion, lettuce and rocket leaves, green thyme, or catmint(1 sprig). Add salted fresh cheese (7-8 oz.). This is all crushed together. Stir in a little peppered vinegar. Put on a plate and pour oil over it. (Columella, Re Rustica, XII) Columella added nuts to some of his other salads. Pine nuts might go nicely in this one.

Next time we revisit Foods of the First Century, we’ll examine Grains. On Friday, we’ll re-activate our series on Ancient Games and look at the Roman Game of Calculi.

 Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings.

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FOODS OF THE FIRST CENTURY - VEGETABLES

Flatbead and Hummus with Olive Oil and Spices

Hello My Friend and Welcome.

Today we return to our ongoing series on the foods of the First Century…the items that Jesus, the Apostles and those first Christians consumed.  As we have already seen, TV and the movies seldom portray an accurate image of that era. And so it is with the food also.

All too often they’re either shown gathered around a campfire gazing hungrily at a side of lamb mounted on a spit. The alternate is having them sitting in hovels scooping glop out of unglazed bowls. True, Middle Eastern people often eat with their fingers or use flatbread in place of a spoon, but the region has a diverse and rich cuisine that goes far beyond glop. At the end of this series I plan to devote a post to what foods they didn’t have, but for now, let’s not be too quick to sell them short.

As always, we’ll start with the Bible.

Beans (2 Samuel 17:28; Ezekiel 4:9) These would have been Fava beans, also known as broad beans or horse beans. Like all beans they can be eaten fresh or dried and reconstituted later. The beans can be sautéed in olive oil with garlic and or onion then mashed and eaten on bread. Favas are also cooked with onion and parsley and served as a stew. Mashed, they become a substitute for chickpeas in hummus.

A Carob Tree

Carob isn’t mentioned in the Bible, but would have been available. The carob tree (Hebrew: חרוב‎ ḥaruv; Greek: χαρουπιά haroubia), Ceratonia siliqua, is a species of flowering evergreen shrub or tree in the pea family that is native to the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated for its edible seed pods. Carobs are also known as St. John's bread; according to tradition St. John the Baptist subsisted on them in the wilderness. Carob was eaten in Ancient Egypt and used as a common sweetener before the arrival of sugar. Though not named, carob may appear in the Bible. The Prodigal Son wanted to eat the pods he fed the swine…most likely carob pods.  

 

Fried Chickpeas

Chickpeas, also known as garbanzo beans, have been cultivated in the Middle East for 7,500 years and would have been one of the vegetables of ancient Israel that isn’t mentioned in the Bible. Chickpeas are most commonly associated with hummus, however, they can be eaten fresh or dried for storage. Sprouted seeds are eaten as a vegetable or salad. Young plants and green pods are eaten like spinach. The leaves yield an indigo-like dye. Flour made from dried chickpeas when mixed with water and olive oil can be baked into a thin, crispy cracker.   

Cucumbers (Numbers 11:5) Cucumbers would be enjoyed fresh in various ways just as they are today. Pickled, they would keep for a long time in a crock of vinegar.  

Gourds (2 Kings 4:39) This passage from Kings tells the story of a man finding a wild vine, gathering gourds from it, and chopping them into a stew. It goes on to say they were poisonous. Elisha purified the stew so it could be eaten. Clearly the gourds must have been green or they couldn’t have been sliced. The gourds I’m familiar with can be dried and their hard outer shell used for a number of purposes…dippers, bird feeders, bird houses, rattles or shakers, decorative hangings, etc. I’m confident that gourds were used a dippers and so on, but much more skeptical that they were eaten. 

Leeks (Numbers 11:5) I’ve always thought of leeks as the onion’s kinder, gentler cousin. Both plants belong to the same family. Unlike the onion, leeks don’t form a tight bulb. They are typically eaten in soups and stews. Dried, they can be rehydrated or chopped fine and used as an herb.

Multi-Colored Lentils

Lentils (Genesis 25:34; 2 Samuel 17:28; Ezekiel 4:9) Lentils, along with beans and peas, are in the pulse family… seeds of plants belonging to the family Leguminosae, which gets its name from the characteristic pod or legume that protects the seeds while they are forming and ripening. Pulses are a valuable food source because they contain a higher percentage of protein than most other plant foods. Dried lentils store very well. They are easier to prepare than dried beans since they require no pre-soaking and cook in an hour or less. They can be cooked into a simple stew, or spiced up with onions, peppers and cumin and served on bread, or sprouted.  

 

Onions (Numbers 11:5) Onions can be pulled from the ground when immature and eaten green. Mature they can be used fresh or hung to dry for storage.

Peas, or field peas as they’re known, would have been another food of the First Century. Peas are one of the oldest cultivated crops and wild varieties can still be found in parts of the Middle East. Pease can be eaten fresh, or dried and stored. Another pulse, they are high in protein.

We mentioned pulses, or legumes, earlier. Legumes provide food, medicines, oils, chemicals, timber, dyes and ornamental garden plants. Legume products include carob, senna, gum arabic, balsam, indigo and licorice. The next post in this series will look at Grains.

Next time, we’ll look at Chariots in Jerusalem.

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings

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FOODS of the FIRST CENTURY: FRUIT AND NUTS

Hello My Friend and Welcome.

This is our Second Post in our Series on Foods of the First Century. If you missed part 1, Spices and Herbs you can find it HERE. As before, we’ll start with a list from the Bible and add where necessary.

Apples (Song of Solomon 2:5) There’s nothing quite like starting out with a controversy, is there? While doing my research I came across an articles that stated, “…most experts agree that Biblical references to apples actually meant apricots.” Oh yeah? Now we just couldn’t fall in line on that one without a fight; so off we went on a hunt for the elusive appl-icot of the Bible.

Here are the facts: Remains of apples have been found in excavations at Jericho in the Jordan Valley in sites that are dated to 6,500 BC. (Are we wrong in believing 6,500 BC came a wee bit earlier than the 1st Century AD?) Dried apple slices were found on saucers in the tomb of Queen Pu-Abi in Ur at a site dated to 2,500 BC. Fast forward to 100 BC and the Roman poet Horace notes that Italy had nearly become one big fruit orchard and the perfect meal begins with eggs and ends with apples. In 50 BC, Cicero, author, statesman, and philosopher urges his Roman countrymen to save their apple seeds from dessert to develop new cultivars. And last, but not least, in 79 AD Pliny the Elder describes 20 varieties of apples in his Natural History. Case closed. The ancient Israelites had apples. Thus, they also had cider, cider vinegar, apple wine, apple sauce, dried apples, and apple peel tea, which Rivkah served in the first chapter of Disciple, Book Two of the Seeds of Christianity.

Apricots originated on the Russian-Chinese border about 3000 BC and were imported along with peach seed into Europe through the "Silk Road" that consisted of camel caravans traveling through the Mideast. Apricots were known in ancient Greece by at least 60 BC and were introduced into the Roman Empire. The fruit grows wild along roadsides in Turkey and Armenia today. It’s fair to say that, even though they didn’t merit a mention in the Bible, 1st Century Jews knew what an apricot was and they ate them fresh, dried or pounded and dried as sheets of fruit leather.

Almonds (Genesis 43:11; Numbers 17:8) In addition to being eaten out of hand, almonds were also used for their oil and were added to various sweetmeats — desserts and candies. Almond trees are commonly found in Galilee, the Golan, Carmel, Samaria and the Judean Hills.

Dates Ripening on the Tree

Dates (2 Samuel 6:19; 1 Chronicles 16:3) In a society that had no refined sugar, sweet, sugary fruits such as dates would have been prized. The date tree is a type of palm and its branches are blessed at the Feast of Succot. They were eaten fresh or dried and pressed into cakes for storage. In years past, I recall circular cakes of imported dates in the produce section around Christmas. In the crucifixion scene in my book, Witness, Rivkah offers the Centurion a cake of dates to allow her to approach the cross. The largest date tree plantation in Israel is located in the Bet Shean valley and numbers some 10,000 date trees.

 

Figs (Nehemiah 13:15; Jeremiah 24:1-3) You may recall Jesus calling Nathaniel, who was under the fig tree. (John 1:48) Figs were another sweet treat that would have been eaten fresh, used to make sweetmeats, and dried for storage.

Grapes (Leviticus 19:10; Deuteronomy 23:24) No dispute here. Grapes were widely cultivated. Crushed, their juice could be enjoyed fresh or allowed to ferment into wine. From the wine they produced wine vinegar. Fresh grape juice was also boiled into a thick, sweet syrup (debash, or grape honey). Grape leaves were used for cooking and added to pickles for crispness.

Melons  (Numbers 11:5; Isaiah 1:8) A fresh and juicy treat. In the Middle Eastern climate, they would have had a long season.

Olives  (Isaiah 17:6; Micah 6:15) Like grapes, olives were a prime staple. They could have been picked green and pickled for storage, or eaten ripe. They were also crushed for oil which they used for cooking, as a skin emollient, and in lamps for lighting. We also have a dedicated post to Olives, Olive Oil and Gethsemanes which you can see HERE.

 

Pine Nuts Pines are mentioned in Isaiah 44:14. Pine nuts are the edible seeds of pines (family Pinaceae, genus Pinus). About 20 species of pine produce seeds large enough to be worth harvesting; in other pines the seeds are also edible, but are too small to be of great value as a human food.

On Jewish holidays, dumplings are served with soup, such as the gondi (chickpea dumplings) of Iranian Jews, or kubbeh, a family of dumplings brought to Israel by Middle Eastern Jews. Especially popular are kubbeh prepared from bulgur and stuffed with ground lamb and pine nuts, and the soft semolina kubbeh cooked in soup, which Jews of Kurdish or Iraqi heritage habitually enjoy as a Friday lunchtime meal. We’ll take that as proof that ancient Israel as well as the Romans enjoyed pine nuts.

Pistachio Nuts (Genesis 43:11) Then their father Israel said to them, “If it must be so, then do this: take some of the best products of the land in your bags, and carry down to the man as a present, a little balm and a little honey, aromatic gum and myrrh, pistachio nuts and almonds." The pistachio grows on the terebinth, one of the four oak trees indigenous to Israel. The word pistachio is derived from the Greek word for pure, pistikos, which generally translates as exceptional quality.

Pistachioes Ripening on the Tree

Plums are another food not mentioned in the Bible. As evidence, consider the following facts: First, Alexander the Great introduced plums to the Mediterranean regions. Secondly, in 65 B.C., Pompey the Great introduced the plum to the orchards of Rome. In 65-62 Pompey conquered Antiochus, King of Syria and captured Jerusalem, subjecting the Hasmonean Dynasty to Roman influence. Plums would have been enjoyed fresh, and dried (prunes).

Pomegranates (Numbers 20:5; Deuteronomy 8:8) Punica granatum is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree. The fruit consists of arils (seed casings) which must be separated from the peel and pulpy membranes. The entire seed is consumed raw, though the watery, tasty aril is the desired part. Grenadine syrup is thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice used in many Middle Eastern dishes. There is also a pomegranate soup. The juice is used to marinate or glaze meat or drunk straight. Boiled to a thick molasses it is mixed into yogurt or spread on bread. It is also mixed with peppers, nuts and garlic to make a spicy spread. The seeds are often used as a garnish in salads and desserts. The Romans made Laganum Fructus, Fruit Cake, using pomegranates. You can see the recipe HERE.

Raisins (Numbers 6:3; 2 Samuel 6:19) Raisins are, of course, dried grapes. Grapes that were not eaten fresh would have been dried into raisins which were, like dates, pressed into cakes for storage.

Sycanore Figs

Sycamore Fruit (Psalm 78:47; Amos 7:14) You may also recall the story of Zaccheus climbing a sycamore fig. (Luke 19:3) The tree we are talking about here is the Sycamore fig from Egypt, not to be confused with other trees called sycamore from northern Europe which are in the maple family. The sycamore fig tree (Ficus sycomorus sycomorus, and F. sycomorus gnaphalocarpa) belong to the fig family, which includes the common edible fig (Ficus carica), and the Banyan tree. The tree is evergreen, grows to 50 feet in height and 45 feet wide, and has large leaves that provide shade. The young fruit are nicked with a knife to encourage their ripening. The orange fruit grows in clusters, and has a distinctive, yet mild taste.

A FINAL NOTE

Modern Israel is a major producer of citrus fruits which are exported to Europe. This could lead one to believe that ancient Jews also had oranges, lemons and limes. Not so. The only citrus native to the Middle East is the citron. The citron is unlike the more common citrus species that are peeled to consume their pulpy, juicy segments; the citron's pulp is very dry, containing little juice. Moreover, the main content of a citron is the thick white rind, which adheres to the segments and cannot be separated from them easily.

From ancient times, the citron was used mainly for medical purposes. Citron juice with honey was considered an effective antidote to poison. The fragrant zest of its outer peel, flavedo, could be used for flavoring or cosmetics. For instance, in Disciple Channah uses citron scented water as a final rinse when washing her hair.

Diced and colored citron is that strange stuff you find in fruit cakes. The whole citron is used as an integral part of the celebration of the Jewish Feast of Sukkoth. Check out our post on Judaisms Feasts and Festivals HERE.

Next time we’ll look at vegetables.

Until then, we wish you Peace and Blessings.

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